What Do We Know

Social studies is defined as the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence (National Council for the Social Studies, NCSS 1994). The primary purpose of the social studies is “to help young people develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world.” (NCSS 1994, p. vii). The essence of social studies education is to produce good citizens; a good decision maker becomes a good citizen. In order for that to happen, students must learn how citizens in a society make personal and public decisions about issues that affect their destinies. One way to help students develop critical thinking skills is by using literature in the social studies classroom.

Using stories in social studies powerfully engages students’ interest and provides readers with opportunities to develop personal understandings and the critical thinking skills necessary to make informed and reasoned decisions (Walther 1997). By developing a deeper understanding through reflection on what they have read and felt, social studies students form positions about what they value in life and choose the actions they will perform (Walther 1997). The use of literature in social studies personalizes the discipline, making it more relevant to the lives and needs of students. Authentic children’s literature provides effective links to social studies curricula and student learning of social studies knowledge and skills (Hancock 1997; Johnson and Ebert 1992; Moir 1992).

For over 60 years, educators and researchers have discussed the schema theory of human memory (Piaget 1926). The theory postulates that as humans receive incoming information, we organize it around previously developed “networks of connected ideas” (Slavin 1988, p. 155). Quite simply, we gain background knowledge from which we develop personal understandings of what we are presently learning (Slavin 1988, p. 155). In the classroom, one way to help students develop meaningful social studies understanding and skills is by using quality literature.

Advocates past and present have championed the use of literature as a resource for social studies instruction. For instance, over 150 years ago, Johan Friedrich Herbart proposed conducting the study of history with literary sources to instill desirable social attitudes in children (McGowan et al. 1996). Even those in the field of developmental psychology have been proponents of the literature-social studies connection. In Developmental Perspectives on the Social Studies, Rosenzweig reviewed Piaget’s findings concerning the development of abstract thinking, Kohlberg’s conception of the nature of moral reasoning and Selman’s studies of the growth of social perspective-taking (1982). Each of these developmental psychologists’ studies has clear implications for the use of literature in the study of the political, social, economic and historical phenomena which constitute the social studies (Rosenzweig 1982).

What does research state about using literature in the social studies classroom?

Research indicates that the narrative style of children’s literature results in students’ discovery and retention of social studies concepts (Downey and Levstik 1991; Farris 1997). Literature assists students in developing time and causation concepts (Rabinowitz 1987). Narrative provides a representation of events that allows one’s own and others’ experiences to be internalized (Van Dongen 1987). Evidence shows that narratives “provide temporal scaffolding that makes some degree of historical understanding accessible to even very young children”(Downey and Levstik 1991, p. 401). In a study by Levstik and Pappas of second, fourth and sixth grade students, children as young as seven and eight responded to history in a literary narrative, had concepts for “history” and “the past” and distinguished between history and the past on the basis of significance (1987). Levstik found that reading and discussion of literary narratives such as historical fiction could encourage a student’s interpretation and analysis of textbook versions of history (1989). Ample evidence suggests that narratives (literature) effectively involve children in making connections between their developing time concepts and historical understanding. Research also suggests that historical narrative may help children generate causal theories with which to interpret historical information from other sources (Downey and Levstik 1991).

Though physical presence was once a prerequisite for first-hand experience, this is no longer the case. According to Meyrowitz, where one is has less and less to do with what one knows and experiences because electronic media have altered the significance of time and space for social interaction (1985). In No Sense of Place, Meyrowitz argued that electronic media have had a tremendous impact on American children’s sense of place. He observed that for the first time in history, our world seems relatively placeless due to today’s media and consequently, children find it difficult to develop a sense of place (Meyrowitz 1985). Evidence also suggests electronic media has made everything so explicit that children do not develop their abilities for play and imagination, or their power to visualize (Huck et al. 1993). Literature, however, provides a vehicle for children to develop their imaginations to consider people, experiences, nature and ideas in new ways that foster the development of a sense of place. A sense of place is more than just developing an awareness and understanding of the political, economic, social and religious atmosphere or climate of a place and time. When describing or defining a sense of place, consider a transportation analogy: A sense of place provides a means of transporting a student to a particular place or time in order to gain the awareness and understanding necessary to think critically.

Different points of view, settings, moods and especially language (i.e., descriptive, narrative, figurative, dialogue or another form of authentic language appropriate for the time and setting) evoke a sense of place. Literature helps to create a sense of time and place that often eludes elementary children. Literature effectively helps children develop a feeling of connectedness and continuity of life (Freeman & Levstik 1988). Children do not always see themselves and their places in the present as part of a bigger picture. A sense of place elicited with literature, provides experiences for students that enable them to see the interdependence of humankind (Huck et al.1993).

Stewig’s work shows that the value of literature lies in its power to evoke emotions: “When children become engaged with a story, they often form an identification with aspects of the story that hold personal meaning for them. They often show personal reaction to a character or situation, relating such elements to their own lives.” (1989, p. 79). Evidence shows that the experiences children have with literature give them new perspectives on the world (Huck et al. 1993). Good writing transports readers to other places and other times and expands their life space. Readers feel connected to the lives of others as they enter an imagined situation with their emotions tuned to those of the story (Huck et al. 1993). Children’s literature provides insight into social studies concepts that broaden children’s limited experiences and teaches them more about themselves, others, heritage and the world community (Stoddard, 1984).

According to Reader Response Theory, reading is a transaction, a two-way interaction between the reader and the text (McGee 1992; Rosenblatt 1976, 1991). Rosenblatt explains that readers respond to a text along a continuum marked by efferent (informational) responses at one end and by aesthetic (emotional) responses at the other. While reading, readers shift from one point along the continuum to another. Reading mixes both types of responses. Readers become active participants in making meaning from the literature they encounter (Probst 1984). Using children’s literature to help develop a sense of place can bridge the gap between efferent and aesthetic reading by providing information and emotional appeal (Sebesta 1989). Ross explains that textbooks, because of the comprehensive information they contain, are far more likely to evoke efferent than aesthetic responses (1994). Literature, on the other hand, more likely deals with moral and social issues that enable the reader to experience life at another time and place. According to Freeman and Freeman, all students can learn if they are engaged in meaningful activities that move from whole to part, build on students’ interests and backgrounds, serve their needs, provide opportunities for social interaction and develop their skills in both oral and written language (1991). Literature addresses all of those needs. Using literature in the social studies classroom provides a relevant, interesting, intellectually provocative way for students to acquire new attitudes toward and an understanding of the world around them (Guzzetti et al. 1992).

Whereas textbooks often present facts and explanations, literature makes content come alive for children (Louie 1993). Since children do not differentiate their thoughts into categories of discourse like adults do, they begin by using a narrative framework to explain themselves and to understand others (Levstik 1986). Therefore, educators should follow children’s natural inclinations and provide opportunities for students to encounter social studies content in a subjective narrative context (i.e., literature) that engages their emotions as well as their intellects as much as possible (Levstik 1986).

What does the use of literature look like in the social studies classroom?

The use of authentic and accurate picture storybooks, historical fiction, contemporary realistic fiction and multicultural literature elicit student responses, develop a sense of place, promote the retention and understanding of social studies content knowledge and skills and promote the critical thinking/problem-solving skills necessary for developing a more humanistic and democratic society (Banks 2001; Blos 1993; Downey and Levstik 1991; Freeman and Freeman 1991; Guzzetti et al. 1992; Huck et al. 1993; Levstik 1989; Noll 1995; Rozenzweig 1982; Ross 1994; Sebesta 1989). For children in the early grades or children with special needs, picture storybooks can be especially useful to help teach social studies concepts and skills (Hancock 1997). A picture storybook conveys meaning through the illustrations and the text, and helps convey a sense of place to a child who is not reading yet, just beginning to read or is an inexperienced reader of English. The reading skill of interpreting illustrations also serves to help develop a child’s sense of place. In the early grades, interpreting illustrations is key because authors often do not give detailed descriptions in the text of picture storybooks. Therefore, good illustrations help to convey a feeling or sense of place in literature for youngsters in the primary grade social studies classroom (Fitzhugh 1992).

When discussing the artwork of picture storybooks, Nodelman states that we perceive new experiences in terms of the experiences preceding them: “Each picture in a picture book establishes a context for the picture that follows – it becomes a schema that determines how we will perceive the next picture” (1988, p. 176). The illustrations, then, lead to new experiences of schema (background knowledge) that help children develop a sense of place in much the same way as using photographs or postcards.

As students make their way into the intermediate grades, their reading material transitions from picture books to chapter books which use the same literary elements but at higher levels, using words to paint the pictures or develop a sense of place. In particular, historical fiction employs more description to help enhance the reader’s imagination and uses dialogue as a tool to help the reader better understand relationships (Huck et al. 1993). Also, many historical fiction books use the third-person omniscient point of view to allow the reader to observe and comprehend the various perspectives within and surrounding the story, which is particularly useful to students when reading about controversial (i.e., emotional or thought-provoking) issues (Huck et al. 1993). Historical fiction enables students to establish multiple perspectives.

Historical fiction does not primarily teach facts as much as it establishes a sense of place and time. “In historical fiction worthy of the name, facts will serve the stories and the stories…will establish human and social circumstances in which the interaction of historical forces may be known, felt and observed” (Blos 1993, p. 13). Historical fiction gives a sense of life as it was lived, or might have been lived, at an earlier time (Blos 1993). Historical fiction also offers children opportunities to vicariously experience the past by entering into a convincingly true-to-life world of people who have lived before them. Being transported to the past through the vehicle of literature, students enter into the lives of the characters and, through mental imagery, become inspired to think, as well as to feel, about their condition (Maxim 1995). Historical fiction maintains a balance of accuracy and authenticity, but imaginatively reflects the mood and values of the times it portrays. By personalizing the past and making it live in the minds of readers, these books help students of all ages understand both the public events that we usually label “history” and the private struggles that characterized the human condition across centuries (Huck et al. 1993).

Stories of the past help students see that times change, but that universal human needs have remained relatively unchanged: “All people need and want respect, belonging, love, freedom, security, regardless of whether they lived during the period of the Vikings or the pioneers or are alive today” (Huck et al. 1993, p. 601). Students discover through literature some of the myriad ways in which human depend on each other and learn the consequences of human failure in relationships, both personal and historical (Freeman and Levstik 1988). Historical literature encourages students to respond, to think as well as feel, by highlighting insensitivities and injustices of the past in the hopes that they will not be repeated. Research confirms that through historical fiction, students learn that people in all times have faced change and crisis and that people in all times have basic needs in common to this day (Blos 1993; Downey and Levstik 1991; Freeman and Freeman 1991; Guzzetti et al. 1992; Huck et al. 1993; Levstik 1989; Noll 1995; Rozenzweig 1982; Ross 1994; Sebesta 1989).

Literature-based social studies allows students to link their knowledge of the past to the social issues of the present (McGowan et al. 1996). Contemporary realistic fiction and multicultural literature effectively relate present day social issues. Contemporary realistic fiction accurately reflects life as it could be lived today: “Everything in such a story can conceivably happen to real people living in our natural physical world…contemporary realism focuses on the problems of living today” (Huck et al. 1993, p. 527). Pieces of literature that honestly portray the realities of life help children toward a fuller understanding of human problems and human relationships and therefore toward a fuller understanding of themselves and their own potential (Huck et al. 1993). Realistic fiction helps students enlarge their frames of reference or perspective, gain understanding, develop compassion and gain experiences by living vicariously through the characters (Huck et al. 1993). Learning experiences acquired through realistic fiction and multicultural literature especially help children learn to respect human diversity (Banks 2001; Banks and Banks 2001; Koeller 1996). Contemporary realistic fiction and multicultural literature provide effective vehicles for teaching current events and student-generated topics because they deal with contemporary people and issues (Huck et al. 1993; Guzzetti et al. 1992; Pate 1988; Sebesta 1989; Stewig 1989).

In the social studies classroom, literature also effectively works to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills by providing opportunities to compare and contrast, judge, form educated opinions and view people, issues and events from various perspectives (Banks 2001; Banks and Banks 2001; Koeller 1996; Huck et al.1993; Guzzetti et al. 1992; Pate 1988; Sebesta 1989; Stewig 1989). Barbara Hardy of the University of London summarily describes the ways in which people use narrative as a way of ordering our world: “We dream in narrative, day-dream in narrative, remember, anticipate, hope, despair, believe, doubt, plan, revise, criticize, construct, gossip, learn, hate, love by narrative. In order really to live, we make up stories about ourselves and others, about the personal as well as the social past and future” (1978, p. 13). In essence, our thinking processes formulate our own narratives. What better way, then, to interest, motivate, encourage, and guide students than by using literature to help students understand and retain social studies knowledge and skills, as well as critical thinking skills? Evidence shows that many features of literature, particularly their detailed descriptions, complex characters, varying perspectives and engaging writing, allow students to construct understandings in powerful ways (McGowan et al. 1996).