What We Know

Meaningful learning in the social studies involves not just mastering the content, but understanding the nature and purpose of the discipline (Levstik and Barton 2001, p. 13). In the Academic Content Standards: K-12 Social Studies, social studies skills and methods is described in the following manner:

Students collect organize, evaluate and synthesize information from multiple sources to draw logical conclusions. Students communicate this information using appropriate social studies terminology in oral, written or multimedia form and apply what they have learned to societal issues in simulated or real-world settings (Ohio Department of Education 2003, p. 12).

This standard provides the opportunity to enrich student’s lives by becoming skilled in obtaining information, thinking and organizing data, communicating information and problem-solving.

What does the research state about obtaining information and thinking and organizing?

The goal of obtaining information and thinking and organizing is to assist students in becoming critically literate. This encompasses how students see and interact with the world and having the skills and desire to evaluate society and the world (Wolk 2003, p. 102). Research shows that students and adults need to exercise critical literacy in all aspects of their lives, at home and school. Wolk reminds us that the purpose of critical literacy is to empower students with the ability to understand multiple perspectives and question concepts based on their previous knowledge (2003, p. 102). 

Research in social studies stresses the importance of allowing students to develop the intellectual skills necessary to use primary sources and work with data when investigating past and present issues (Doolittle and Hicks 2003, p. 73). Wade supports the position that students succeed when provided opportunities to actively create their own meaning of the world based on their prior knowledge, experiences, interests, motivation and values (2003, p. 75). Thornton concludes that the goals of social studies instruction will fall short of success if the active construction of knowledge and analysis of information are not addressed (Seixas 2001, p. 549). 

Social studies is often seen as the school subject that integrates knowledge from various disciplines (Seixas 2001, p. 549). Social studies has the potential to be interdisciplinary in that it blends with English language arts, science, the arts and mathematics. Seixas notes that social studies content is selected as a means of accomplishing larger purposes and goals (2001, p. 558). This includes developing information-processing skills that are critical to student success. The processing of information entails a search for patterns based on multiple data sources, a summarization of the data and a transformation of the data into usable patterns for understanding (Sunal 1990, p. 8). Students will use their information-gathering skills, along with thinking and organizing skills, to seek answers to questions from all disciplines. In the study of history, students will use their information-processing skills to understand that history is interpretive, explained through narrative and is causally related (Levstik and Barton 2001, p. 5).

Levstik and Barton find that students need to be guided in how to ask and answer social studies questions (2001, p. 14). To be able to ask and research quality questions about the past or present, students need to know how to find information, evaluate sources, reconcile conflicting accounts, and create interpretive summaries. In “History-The Past as a Frame of Reference,” Rogers notes that “historical inquiry cannot be carried on without context, while at the same time, context is what one’s previous study of history has largely provided” (1987, p. 8). Shemilt agrees that context is critical, but notes that students rarely ask “How do we know?” Students often take knowledge about the past for granted because they have seldom worked with multiple forms of information (Shemilt 1987, p. 43). Levstik and Barton stress the need for a vibrant social studies curriculum that engages students in investigating significant themes, asking questions and making choices as a focus of study (2001, p. 3).

The impact of the textbook in social studies is the focus of a number of researchers. Students need to understand that the first and often most important source they should consult for information is their textbook. Yet, researchers identify a concern that many textbooks present obstacles to student learning. Levstik and Barton note that the expository text used in most classroom textbooks emphasizes “greater degrees of abstraction while trying to maintain a neutral stance,” causing students to distance themselves from history (2001, p. 110). Beck and McKeown found that students have difficulty making sense of their textbooks because the books often lack explanations and connections among ideas and events (2002, p. 44). Wineburg finds that the textbooks sift through the evidence for students, causing them to view textbooks as fact rather than an interpretation of events (2001). Wineburg recommends that students be taught to read textbook accounts for their subtext, their authenticity and to question their conclusions (2001, p. 169). 

How do obtaining information and thinking and organizing look in the classroom?

Levstik and Barton identified four skills critical for students to participate in a sustained conversation about history: 1) ask questions that are worthy of discussion; 2) identify questions that do not have simple or single answers; 3) gather sufficient and appropriate data for analysis; 4) use imaginative entry into the past (2001, p. 24).

General consensus from the research shows that elementary children can understand and use information and data when the application is modeled by the teacher (Alleman and Brophy 2003, p. 107). Teachers of elementary students need to assist students in identifying information and data. Reading techniques, such as how to distinguish fiction from non-fiction, could provide students with the ability to construct their own fictional or non-fiction historical accounts (Brophy and VanSledright 1997, p. 19). Sunal states, “A good early childhood program allows for exploration, experimentation and inquiry, all within a structured yet creative environment” (1990, p. 74). 

Wineburg makes an analogy for the study of history, but it is true for all of the social studies disciplines. He writes, “Our encounter with history presents us with a choice: to learn about rhinoceroses or to learn about unicorns. We naturally incline toward unicorns-they are prettier and more tame. But, it is the rhinoceros that can teach us far more than we could ever imagine” (2001, p. 24). Learning about the difficult subject, or the “rhinoceros,” would necessitate providing multiple resources, teaching critical thinking skills, assisting children in identifying the relationships among people, places and the environment, and encouraging children to infer the limitations that scarce data imposes (Sunal 1990, p. 162). This challenge often turns classroom discourse towards the “unicorn,” avoiding questions like “Why?” and “How do we know?”

Research on reading education addresses the concept of building understanding. Instruction is moving deeper into this area with the technique called “Questioning the Author” (Beck and McKeown 2002, p. 44). This instructional approach focuses students’ attention on building understanding of ideas through the use of questioning skills. Like Wineburg, Beck and McKeown suggest having children question the subtext and meaning of what they are reading, especially textbooks. The use of this technique allows children to grapple with ideas while they read and dig in to make sense of new information. Research studies on reading contend that students use three sources to build understanding: texts, queries and discussion (Beck and McKeown 2002, p. 44). The “questioning the author” technique encourages young readers to perceive the process of understanding as a challenge. The questions the students (the teachers in kindergarten and grade one) develop are then discussed by the class, bringing students to the third source of understanding, keeping in mind that understanding is from the students’ perspective. 

Students need help in seeing how the information they find relates to the questions they have developed. The use of graphic organizers to assist in organizing information provides an opportunity for teachers to model skills associated with the social studies (Levstik and Barton 2001, p. 84). By developing thinking and questioning skills, students will be able to answer the “Why?” and “How do we know?” questions.

What does the research say about communication and problem-solving?

Building on the research associated with obtaining information and thinking and organizing, communication and problem-solving incorporate critical literacy, critical thinking and constructivist concepts into Social Studies Skills and Methods. Niemi and Junn, using information from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Civics assessment, identified discussion and analysis of reading material as two factors that enhanced student learning and resulted in higher test scores (1998, p. 79). Citing John Dewey, “Schools are not training grounds for democracy, but the places where democracy is enacted.” Verbal interactive activities (i.e., discussions, group consensus-building) promote collaboration and negotiation among learners (Egbert and Simich-Dudgeon 2001, p. 23).

Verbal interaction is fundamental to learning both language and content, and is a way for students to reflect new information and how it relates to their view of the world. Wolk concludes that not allowing children to engage in open discussion on important issues and topics will cause a detrimental intellectual void in schools. Open discussion of issues results when classrooms are viewed as safe havens for student communication: non-judgmental, meaningful, welcoming and free of prejudice (2003, p. 104). The social studies classroom should be a place in which children can experience and interact with the world around them (Sunal 1990, p. 22).

Problem-solving, whether it is called research, problem-based learning, inquiry, service-learning, field research or critical thinking, requires students to solve problems and share the responsibility for teaching and learning. Campbell states that students as young as third-grade can define and clarify problems, judge information and solve problems by drawing conclusions from data (2000, p. 238). Levstik and Barton agree that elementary students can “do research,” but may need assistance in developing investigation methods, asking questions, collecting information, drawing conclusions and presenting findings (2001, p. 77). Jantz and Seefeldt conclude that teachers who engage students in active investigations stand a good chance of helping students develop a meaningful understanding of social studies (1999, p. 167). 

How do communication and problem-solving look in the classroom?

Incorporating decision-making and critical thinking skills into the social studies curriculum can be effective, dynamic and interesting (Morton 1987, p. 210). To be successful, problem-solving lessons should contain the following three components: a) students understand the question being asked and have enough prior knowledge to critically assess the problem; b) students role-play and develop alternative positions to solve the problem; c) students use divergent thinking toward and critical assessment of the alternative proposals (Armento 1987, p. 181).

Active learning opportunities find students engaging in discussions of issues and taking part in activities that put a “real life” perspective on what is learned (Levstik and Barton 2001, p. 21). Presentations, simulations, mock trials, debates and classroom discussions are ways to involve students in the creation of their own knowledge. To prepare students for society and political involvement, students need to be encouraged to take part in groups and engage in activities that promote the good of their community (school, home, local community, etc.). When participating in social networks (class discussions, community forums, interschool activities such as model United Nations, etc.), students need to be respectful toward familiar and unfamiliar individuals and their beliefs. Students need to have the skills for acquiring knowledge and the capacity to present their findings in a manner appropriate to their audience (Torney-Purta and Damon 1999). 

Observational research reports identify little evidence in classrooms of concerted work on higher-order thinking skills. To many students, social studies is not seen as a serious or challenging subject during their kindergarten through grade 12 years (Seixas 2001, p. 550). As a result of the research, greater attention is being made to move social studies to the forefront by promoting engagement for understanding, higher-order thinking skills, and teaching that allows students to see their agency (power to act) in their educational development (Seixas 2001, p. 558; Levstik and Barton 2001, p. 125). Social Studies Skills and Methods provides students with opportunities to collect, organize, evaluate and synthesize information from multiple sources and to draw logical conclusions. Communicating this information using an appropriate form and forum supports the skills needed to participate as an active citizen in American society.