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The Evidence Base for Social Studies: People in Societies
The Evidence Base for Social Studies: People in Societies
What We Know
Culture defines for us what is normal, what is
expected, what is the ideal way of living, and how the world works.
(Swiniarski et al. 1999, p. 60). Culture is broadly defined as a dynamic,
creative and continuous process including what we know, how we behave and what
we believe (Arvizu, Snyder and Espinosa, 1980, p. 5). It gives people within a
particular group a feeling of identity and belonging. One’s culture may be
associated with an ethnic group or nationality, but culture also applies to
people within particular geographic areas, genders, age groups or life
situations. (Swiniarski et al. 1999, p. 61).
In addition, Hernandez
reports that culture is "an intertwined system of values, attitudes, beliefs,
and norms that give meaning and significance to both individual and collective
identity. To varying degrees, all persons are culturally bound and
conditioned. Within a particular culture, they derive a sense of identity and
belonging, a guide for behavior." (1988, pp. 21-22). According to James Banks,
it is the "symbolic, ideational, and intangible aspects of human societies"
(2001, p. 8). Banks states that the essence of culture is not its artifacts,
tools or other tangible cultural elements, but how the members of the group
interpret, use and perceive these tangible elements.
Cultural
pluralism is the concept that describes how all the parts of society
contribute to an American whole; the United States is viewed as a multitude of
cultures, each with unique characteristics that contribute to the larger
culture. (Arends 1991; Maxim1999). The National Council for the Social Studies
states that the "primary purpose of social studies is to help young people
develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public
good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an
interdependent world." (NCSS 1994, p. vii). Therefore, the foundation of
social studies education is partly based on the concept of cultural pluralism
– becoming sensitive to and respecting the contributions of each group to
society in general (Maxim 1999, p. 62).
What does research state
about the role of culture in student learning?
Research shows
that by the time children enter kindergarten it is common for them to possess
misconceptions and negative attitudes about cultural groups different from
their own (Byrnes 1988; Sonnenschein 1988; Banks and Banks 2001). Because our
nation continues to become more diverse, the prevention and reduction of
prejudice are imperative (Banks and Banks 2001; Pallas et al. 1989; Shaw
1997). According to Conrad, good citizens are "multiculturally astute; they
have human relations skills that enable them to interact with a multicultural
population and they have a global perspective." (1988, p. 283). Because
students will become citizens of the world as well as the United States, one
major goal of multicultural education is to help all students develop more
positive attitudes toward different cultural, racial and ethnic groups (Banks
and Banks 2001).
A major goal of multicultural education is to help
all students develop more positive attitudes toward different cultural, racial
and ethnic groups (Banks and Banks 2001). A primary reason for developing
positive attitudes toward people from different groups is that "being an
active participant in American society requires the ability to interact with
people from diverse backgrounds" (Sunal and Haas 1993, p. 346). Among the
attitudes necessary for the development of critical thinking skills are
flexibility, open-mindedness, and respect for other viewpoints or perspectives
(Walsh 1988). Research indicates that activities and materials with a strong
affective component invite children to vicariously view or experience the
lives of people from diverse backgrounds and are effective in the development
of perspective-taking (Byrnes 1988). Once students begin to feel empathy, they
are well on their way to respecting diverse points of view and thus, becoming
less prejudiced (Farris and Cooper 1997, p. 251).
Culture is an
integrated part of the daily lives of people. It is woven into the students’
daily activities, not just the social studies classroom. Teaching about
ancient peoples and other cultures implies placing greater emphasis on the
commonalities and shared identities of people rather than their differences
(Brophy and VanSledright 1997, p. 41). Banks notes that we need to develop
educational programs and policies that are designed to make students more
accepting of cultural differences and deal seriously with problems caused by
racial differences (Sunal 1990, p. 109). Suarez identifies that the use of the
words "us and them" and "we and they" influences students to think there are
more differences than commonalities in the world (2003, p. 180). Shemilt’s
study determined that student abilities to empathize with people from the past
or from other cultures depends on the manner in which the children are taught,
their direct involvement in thinking historically, and the types of sources at
their disposal (Brophy and VanSledright 1997, p. 12). Multicultural trade
books have emerged as one way to assist students in becoming globally aware
(Pugh and Garcia 1994). These trade books have a wide-range of topics and
themes including historical accounts, biographies and issue analyses. The
National Council for the Social Studies has established the Carter G. Woodson
Book Award to recognize books that meet the following guidelines: reflects
respect for personal and cultural differences and the worth of individuals;
offer factual, realistic and balanced treatment of issues; focuses on
problems/issues among minority groups; focuses on interactions among minority
groups; develops concepts related to cultural pluralism (Pugh and Garcia 1994).
How does this look in the classroom?
Cultural awareness, or the
study of other cultures, needs to be a regular part of the social studies
curriculum and not limited to special events or celebrations. Wills identifies
four components needed for teaching culture: the distribution of power and
resources, privilege, structural inequalities, and institutional racism 2001,
p. 60). These may be found in the study of interactions, conflicts, and
quarrels between people of diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds, women,
and/or marginalized groups with the mainstream. According to Campbell,
developing a cross-cultural perspective allows students to become aware of
their own culture, understand and avoid areas of unnecessary conflict and
learn through contrast (2000, p. 50). Teachers can emphasize that ancient
peoples and other cultures are intelligent, but may not enjoy the accumulated
benefits of science and technology found in the world today (Brophy et al.
2003, p. 40). Wills concludes that such a curriculum better prepares students
for active citizenship in our diverse society (2001, p. 59). Research trends
indicate that providing cultural instruction results in fewer acts of racism
and discrimination (Wills 2001, p. 59).
Hicks’ Core Elements Model
introduces four elements or dimensions for studying global issues.
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Element one is "issues dimension and consists of five major problem areas and
corresponding solutions: inequality/equality; injustice/justice;
conflict/peace; environmental damage/care; alienation/participation.
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The second element is "spatial dimension" which emphasizes exploration of the
local-global connections that exist in the real-world (migration, trade, war
for territory, etc.).
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"Temporal issues" is the third element that explores the interconnections
between past, present and future in relation to global issues.
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The fourth element is "process dimension" which explores differing value
perspectives and leads to an awareness of local-global citizenship (Hicks
2003, p. 271).
Richardson sees global studies as the synthesis of two vital traditions in
education: learner-centered education and building equity (Hicks 2003, p. 270).
Learning experiences that encourage children to actively interact with their
classmates and their community provide opportunities for students to learn
about a variety of cultures in the United States and the world. The United
States is, in fact, multicultural (Campbell 2000, p. 42). Campbell addresses
ways in which teachers may approach the concept of culture at various grade
levels. In the early elementary grades, the inclusion of such concepts as
kinship, education, health, leadership and community help young children
understand the more general concept of culture (Campbell 2000, p. 51). Upper
elementary and early middle school students can begin to analyze the
differences between the traditions practiced at home and the traditions
promoted by television and peer groups (i.e., an immigrant student is a
product of his birth culture and his new culture that is idealized in the
media, school, and/or peer groups). It is important for children to see that
they are active participants in the process of acquiring culture. Branson and
Torney-Purta determined that upper elementary students’ egocentric view
(thinking or acting with the belief that one’s own way of acting is the only
way to act) and ethnocentric views (belief in the superiority of one’s own
ethnic group) of the rights of other peoples could be used with global issues
as a vehicle to study culture (Wade 1994, p. 79). Lynch-Brown and Tomlinson
find that stories are the storehouses of culture, and telling students these
stories helps ensure that students become culturally literate "as long as the
stories represent an accurate view of a culture." (Hilke 1999, p. 9).
The middle school/junior high years, as noted by Wade, are considered to be a
critical period for the development of attitudes toward global issues in
general and human rights in particular (1994, p. 79). Students in this group
are able to address the way social relations have changed and the reasons they
changed (Levstik and Barton 2001, p. 11). Incorporating an interdisciplinary
approach in middle school provides a wide-range of topics for cultural study.
Zaslavsky states, "When math curriculums incorporate the study of world
cultures, students learn to appreciate differences and critically examine
their own society" (2002, p. 66). Zaslavsky identifies some activities for
middle school/junior high students that combine cultural studies and
mathematics: "digging up ancient number systems," "recording numbers the Inca
way," and "building African round houses." World Geography naturally ties into
the middle school curriculum in Ohio. Using Campbell’s "What Culture Is"
approach as a perspective for instruction would also assist in reducing
misconceptions often held by students. According to Campbell, culture is:
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dynamic;
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continuous and cumulative;
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learned and shared by a people;
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behavior and values exhibited by a people;
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creative and meaningful to a people’s lives;
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symbolically represented through language and interactions; and
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a guide to people in their thinking, feeling and acting.
Integrating cultural studies with geography would prepare students for
effective participation in dealing with the world (Campbell 2000, p. 50).
High school students are able to develop a cross-cultural perspective. They
are aware of their own ethnocentrism and begin to develop cultural relativity
(belief that there are many cultural ways that are correct, each in its own
location and context) (Campbell 2000, p. 45). Introducing multicultural
perspectives, beginning in elementary school and continuing through high
school, presents a more inclusive and authentic version of the future helping
students understand discrimination, marginalization and opposition, as well as
power and privilege.
Many advocates of the literature-social studies
connection maintain that teaching with literature can promote multiple aspects
of student’s affective growth (McGowan et al. 1996, p. 205; Huck et al. 1993).
Evidence shows that students experiencing multicultural literature emerge with
a heightened social sensitivity to the needs of others and the recognition
that people have similarities as well as differences (McGowan et al. 1996;
Norton 1990). The use of multicultural literature has also been shown to boost
the likelihood that students will practice positive social and ethical
behaviors such as conflict resolution, compassion, humanism and tolerance
(Gallagher 1988; McGowan et al. 1996). All of these behaviors are essential
for a student to become a good citizen, especially in an increasingly diverse
society.
Prejudice is learned and one of the most common ways
children learn prejudice is by observing existing behaviors and experiencing
the effects of attitudes toward various groups in the community (Byrnes 1988).
Young children need to make sense of their world and do so by categorizing
people and situations. According to Ramsey, this natural tendency increases
the likelihood that children will adopt the very attitudes and behaviors that
they observe and experience. The media (television and films) often reinforce
group stereotypes and may be some children’s only exposure to certain groups
(Byrnes 1988). Literature is no exception, which is why it is important to use
positive, accurate and authentic literature in the classroom. Since literature
has the power to help children construct knowledge, "books that present
accurate and authentic depictions of children’s cultural backgrounds validate
those cultures and communicate to all children a strong, positive message
about our diverse society." (Noll 1995, p. 29). Conversely, when literature
excludes certain cultures or contains misinformation and warped images,
children’s identities, attitudes and understandings are negatively influenced
(Noll 1995). The necessity for authentic and accurate multicultural literature
is illustrated by Litcher and Johnson’s seminal research project. They had one
group of second- grade students read books selected for having multiethnic
characters portrayed as decent, hardworking people with high moral standards.
A comparison group read the same books with the characters portraying the same
qualities, except they were all shown as white Anglo people. "Students who
read the multiethnic books developed more positive attitudes toward ethnic
groups than did the comparison students." (Pate 1988, p. 287). Thinking
critically is the antithesis of prejudicial thinking. Critical thinking is a
way of looking at the world, a filter which qualifies our experiences, and
research suggests that the use of quality literature and indirect teaching of
the critical thinking skills and dispositions needed to combat prejudice is
effective (Walsh 1988).
According to Pate, prejudice is a phenomenon
consisting of at least three related components: the cognitive, the affective
and the behavioral. Research suggests that activities and materials with a
strong affective component that invite children to enter vicariously into the
lives of people of different ethnic groups are effective in the development of
open-mindedness, flexibility and respect for other viewpoints (Byrnes 1988;
Walsh 1988). The elementary school years are a particularly important time for
addressing issues of prejudice and discrimination because experiences children
have (or do not have) during these years can be important determinants of
later attitudes and feelings toward various social groups (Byrnes 1988). A
landmark research study, "Prejudice in America," was conducted by the
Anti-Defamation league and the University of California at Berkeley from 1963
to 1975. The study concluded that by the age of 12, children have already
developed a complete set of stereotypes about every ethnic, racial and
religious group in society (Sonnenschein 1988). The study also found that
early adolescence is a state in which children are still open and undergoing
development – in the process of self-discovery – so "counteraction" is still
possible for the next few years of adolescence. However, children will
continue to build on their stereotypes and become narrow-minded adults if no
counteraction occurs during this time (Sonnenschein 1988, p. 265). As Byrnes
declares, "If we cherish democracy, we have a responsibility to communicate
this to our children by working against prejudice and discrimination in our
society." (1988, p. 267).
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