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The Evidence Base for Social Studies: History
The Evidence Base for Social Studies: History
What We Know
What is history? History is often viewed as an
endless parade of names and dates. In truth, it is an intriguing story filled
with discernible patterns and trends (Wineberg 2001, p. 169). History is a
historian’s interpretation of events, which opens them to interpretation.
History is a series of reflections: local history reflecting state history;
state history reflecting national history; and national history reflecting
world history (Levstik and Barton 2001, p. 60; Stevens 2001, p. 13). The
images of history are composites of all of these factors; none of them take
place in isolation. Consequently, history education is the search for
understanding and the promoting of teaching that goes beyond factual
memorization, recall and recitation (Seixas 2001, p. 558; Sunal 1990, p. 156).
Students often do not see themselves as being “in history.” Developing a sense
of what the subject is all about and how it relates to students is one of the
teacher’s first and most important goals (Levstik and Barton 2001, p. 32). For
students to recognize themselves as part of, and contributing to, history is
empowering (Alleman and Brophy 2003, p.108).
What is the role of
schema-building or knowledge construction in history?
According
to Widmayer, all human beings possess a set of rules they use to interpret the
world. These rules are called schema (2004). Learning about history is a
life-long process of schema-building that involves in-depth information and
making predictions and interpretations regarding concepts (Levstik and Barton
2001, p. 17). Information that does not fit into an individual’s schema may
not be comprehended. Each individual’s schema is different and is shaped by
that individual’s experiences and cognitive processes. Teachers serve as
guides and facilitators of learning rather than dispensers of knowledge
(Doolittle and Hicks 2003, p. 85). Several instructional strategies flow from
this theory. For learners to be able to effectively process information, their
existing schema needs to be activated.
The building of this context
is fundamental to history, as it requires a blending of inquiry and the study
of historical works (Rogers 1987, p.9). Shemilt expands on this theory,
asserting that students take knowledge about the past for granted because they
have done little or no work with sources and have rarely been asked “How do we
know?” (1987, p.44) A dilemma for teachers arises because historical inquiry
cannot be carried on without context, while this context is determined largely
by the student’s previous study of history (Shemilt 1987). Therefore, teachers
need to know what a student currently knows about the topic (context) and
provide materials for the student to ask “how do we know” to build new
contexts for historical understanding.
How does this impact the
instruction of history?
Research demonstrates that successful
instruction often begins with students’ interests and experiences, especially
at the primary grade levels. Sansom identified four key conceptual clusters
associated with history instruction and how they are viewed by children at
various stages of development (1987; Brophy and Vansledright 1997, p. 13).
(see chart)
At the elementary level, a number of
researchers argue for an emphasis on narrative texts through the integration
of language arts with historical study (Brophy and VanSledright 1997, p.17).
The key to using narrative text, according to Hilke, is to ensure that the
character’s action, language, style of living and values are realistic for the
time period (1999). If the literature is not accurate, the student develops a
distorted understanding of history, which makes it difficult to fit his/her
schema (Hilke 1999, p.13). Knowing how to read and reconstruct the past, using
literature, allows one to develop a historical perspective.
Brophy
and VanSledright found that by the end of elementary school the students
shared a lack of familiarity towards history as a discipline or school
subject; they had a general knowledge about “life in the olden days,” and they
had been exposed to some historical information through lessons on holidays,
Native Americans and pioneers (1997). The research concludes that most upper
elementary students are novice history learners, unfamiliar with history as a
knowledge domain, and do not yet possess a coherently organized network of
historical knowledge (Brophy and VanSledright 1997, p.251). At the junior high
level, research findings by Kinder and Bursuck indicate students taking notes
using a problem-solution-effect analysis showed significantly improved
achievement and attitudes in history (1991, p.272). A problem-solution-effect
analysis is the process whereby students select a problem in history (i.e.,
World War II; transportation, etc.), identify the solutions taken (i.e.,
D-Day; development of the automobile, etc.) and identify the effects of the
solutions (i.e., Germany surrendered, high loss of Allied Forces; air
pollution, etc.). Researchers conclude that by using this analysis, students
were able to identify and assimilate important information into their schemas,
which was then retained more easily than isolated facts. Researchers added
that using chronology timelines, identifying key vocabulary words, and writing
structured notes increased students’ understanding of history (Kinder and
Bursuck 1991, p.274).
How do timelines and historical evidence
impact student learning of history?
Learning history means more
than memorizing dates; an understanding of what happened before and after the
significant date adds to the meaning associated with the event. Research shows
that children are more adept at ordering moments in time than matching moments
in time to specific dates. Equating dates with an understanding of time
underestimates students’ abilities (Levstik and Barton 2001, p. 87). As Sunal
states, “children’s exploration of history is affected by their conception of
time” (1990, p.154). Very young children, kindergarten through second grade,
develop a sense of time beginning with “before” and “after.” As they move into
upper elementary grades, students’ historical meaning is oriented around key
historical events. Therefore making and using timelines helps build on what
the students know, leading to an understanding of change over time. Brophy and
VanSledright identify that periodic reference to chronology through the use of
timelines helps students keep track of the big picture (1997, p.255).
In a study of high school level instructional approaches to teaching history,
Kobrin found that students who were asked to use historical evidence,
artifacts and primary documents to produce their own historical accounts
developed a more thorough understanding of history. Kobrin, in “It’s My
Country, Too: A Proposal for a Student Historian’s History of the United
States,” maintains that studying the past the way historians do can also
nurture the sense of pride and integrity that makes for a whole person (1992).
A suggested way for introducing this to students is to set the stage by
capturing the students’ interests. Establishing the time frame for completion
of the unit, selecting the appropriate primary sources and the order the
sources are to be used, and having the students work collaboratively make it
easier for the students to be historians. Young and Leinhardt’s study of the
use of primary sources in writing about history adds to this research.
“Developing academic literacy in history involves growth along two dimensions:
the content and the rhetoric of history” (Young and Leinhardt 1998, p.56).
Growth on the content dimension includes a more detailed knowledge of the
historic period being studied and growth on the rhetoric dimension includes
interpretation, evaluation and acts of analysis (Young and Leinhardt 1998,
p.56). Students learn that opinions need to be based on evidence and that the
evidence needs to logically support the opinion, and be accurate according to
reliable sources (Kobrin 1992).
A vibrant and engaging history
curriculum engages students of all age and grade levels. Having students
identify themes in history and question an historian’s perspective brings the
study of the human experience to life.
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