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The Evidence Base for Social Studies: Controversial Issues
The Evidence Base for Social Studies: Controversial Issues
What We Know
Any issue which tends to create polarized
viewpoints may be considered controversial (Teclehaimanot and Lamb 2004).
Evans, Avery and Pederson identify some controversial issues as taboos:
beliefs that constrain actions by making certain behaviors and discussion of
certain topics forbidden (2000). How do controversial issues affect society in
general? Healthy democracies require citizens to engage in high quality public
talk (Hess and Posselt 2002, p. 287). They note a Kettering Foundation study
which concluded, "Citizens want to participate in public talk and, when they
do, they ‘enlarge rather than narrow, the way they see and act on public
concerns’" (Hess and Posselt 2002, p. 288). John Hibbing and Elizabeth
Theiss-Morse note that, while Americans generally like conflict and
controversy, they generally dislike contentious disputes about politics,
policy and governance (Hess 2004). A positive relationship exists between
discussion of complex issues and the development of tolerant attitudes and
knowledge of the need for tolerance in democracies (Hess 2004).
Harwood and Hahn define discussion of controversial issues as reflective
dialogue among students, or between students and teachers, about an issue on
which there is disagreement (1999). The discussion allows for presentation of
supportive evidence, comments and the expression of differing points of view.
To achieve this, a climate which is conducive to free expression of ideas is
necessary.
What role do controversial issues play in student
learning?
Jeong and VanSickle report that developing a balanced
and healthy personality requires an understanding of the complexities of a
global world (2003, p. 234). Audrey Osler and Hugh Starkey concur with this
position and further suggest that not only are all human lives increasingly
influenced by events in the global world, but students’ own communities
(neighborhoods and cities) are more diverse (socially, culturally,
ideologically) as a result of these events (2003, p. 246).
Schools
are communities in which young people learn to interact, argue and work
together with others, an important foundation for democracy (Carnegie
Corporation of New York and The Center for Information &Research on Civic
Learning &Engagement, CIRCLE, 2003, p. 3). Joel Westheimer and Joseph Kahne
state that a "good citizen" in a democratic society should be adverse to
"either/or solutions, tolerant of ambiguity, skeptical of demagoguery and
attentive to the tensions between individual and group and between liberty and
order" (2003, p.14). All of these are attributes associated with the
discussion of controversial issues. Often, students see political issues as
"either/or", when in reality, there are multiple options that could be chosen
or implemented, each with its own societal costs and benefits. As a result,
they begin to develop a tolerance for ambiguity. In short, schools/classrooms
are where students learn about how to become "good citizens" by discussing
controversial issues.
Amy Gutmann identifies the classroom as a
powerful place to promote rational deliberations of competing conceptions of
the good life and the good society (Hess 2004). Hess and Posselt describe the
positive effects of democracy education which includes an open climate for
discussion and self-expression in the classroom (2002, p. 288). In another
report, Hess finds that schools are best suited for discussion of
controversial issues when they contain more ideological diversity than
anywhere else in students’ lives (2004). Weighing in on this issue, Hibbing
and Theiss-Morse, call for a revamping of what students in elementary and
secondary schools are taught about the nature of democracy and democratic
participation (Hess 2004). Hibbing and Theiss-Morse wish to promote a
curriculum with hotly debated political issues in order to teach students that
controversy is not an unfortunate by product of democracy but one of its core
and vital elements. As a result of discussing controversial issues in the
classroom, students score higher on measures of political efficacy and show
positive correlations with following current events in media and discussing
political matters with family and friends (Harwood and Hahn 1999).
How does the use of controversial issues impact the social studies classroom?
When approached correctly, teaching controversial issues in the classroom can
help develop students into citizens who will be more likely to deal
intelligently and decisively with complex issues (Cook 1984). Osler and
Starkey believe it is a responsibility of educators to help students develop a
broad understanding of national identity, and that the identity of the United
States is experienced differently by different people (2003, p. 252). They add
that to be a citizen, individuals need to establish a sense of solidarity with
others in their community. Teaching using controversial issues will equip
students with the knowledge, skills and attitudes to make a difference in
their communities (Osler and Starkey 2003, p. 252).
Recent
observational data from research suggests that few students seriously study
controversial issues, and that group discussions appear not to be prominent
instructional modes (Hess and Posselt 2002, p. 287). In the 135 observed
classes, students simply identified and offered opinions on the issues. No
indications were present of students analyzing evidence or theories regarding
causes and solutions to the identified problems. Textbooks rarely present
various sides of controversies and almost never reveal to students the
evidence on which each side bases its position (Loewen 1995, p. 265). One set
of textbook authors, as quoted by Loewen, said "we have not avoided
controversial issues; instead, we have tried to offer reasoned judgments on
them" (1995, p. 5). As a result, students find difficulty in analyzing
controversial issues when textbooks present problems as already having been
solved or about to be solved (Loewen 1995, p. 2). Therefore, it is important
to provide students opportunities to investigate issues that require them to
seek intellectual balance by discussing the multiple perspectives held by
individuals or groups associated with the issue.
Elementary school
teachers can deal with controversial issues by helping students become
decision-makers. William Kreidler ("Teaching Elementary Children") offers
seven ways to assist elementary students in this process. He suggests the
following strategies: (1) make classrooms a safe place to ask questions and
discuss ideas by modeling respect for others (2) listen to concerns students
have by giving them the opportunity to express their point of view (3) correct
misinformation about a fact stated, not a position held (4) reassure students
by listening to their concerns (5) help students find answers to their
questions by providing balanced, age-appropriate materials (6) try not to
instill adult fears or burden students with adult concerns (7) emphasize that
conflicts are opportunities for learning and growth.
"The Civic
Mission of Schools" report notes that by the time students reach middle school
and high school, their discussions of current and historical events could be
monitored, so that students feel welcome to speak from a variety of
perspectives, with mutual respect and civility. The report also indicates that
social studies courses that engage students in active learning, and other
forms of civic education, can improve students’ civic knowledge, skills and
intentions to vote and volunteer. It further states that active learning about
controversial issues engages students in activities with "real life"
perspectives such as debates, panel discussions, round tables and editorials
(2003, p. 14).
Suzanne Cherrin proposes the concept of "freedom with
structure" to achieve open discussion of controversial issues. "Freedom with
structure" is a balance of free expression of each student’s opinions and
respect for other students and their opinions (2004). Preparing students for
participation in such discussions involves an investment of time to train
students in discussion techniques (Harwood and Hahn). It is important in the
early and middle grades for students and teachers to cooperatively determine
discussion guidelines. Cherrin offers several ideas for teachers to address
when developing discussion guidelines:
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Make a humanitarian appeal to students by reminding them that prejudicial
remarks made in class may offend or embarrass others
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Establish ground rules for disagreement by requiring a student who wishes to
make an opposing opinion to restate the position of the other student in a way
which is satisfactory to that person before the student can voice a new
opinion (2004).
Harwood and Hahn stress that teachers should involve students in selecting
which controversial issues to discuss, while considering students’ experiences
and expertise regarding the issue, relevance of the issue to students’ lives,
students’ maturity level and significance of the issue to society. The scope
of controversial issues may be quite broad, but the educational rewards will
prepare students for their roles as citizens in a pluralistic democracy and
develop and improve their critical thinking skills as adults.
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