|
The Evidence Base for Social Studies: Citizenship Rights and Responsibilities
The Evidence Base for Social Studies: Citizenship Rights and Responsibilities
What We Know
Citizenship in a democratic society carries with
it certain rights and responsibilities. Rights are in accordance with the laws
of society and responsibilities are the utilization of rights. Citizenship
reflects the fundamental principle upon which the democratic government of the
United States is founded: "…that all men are created equal, that they are
endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights…That to secure these
rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from
the consent of the governed…" (Declaration of Independence). Rights and
responsibilities co-exist with each other; you cannot have one without the
other.
What does research state about student learning of
Citizenship Rights and Responsibilities?
Democracies are based
upon the principle of active citizenship. What is often forgotten is that
individuals do not automatically become responsible citizens but must be
educated for citizenship (CIRCLE 2003, p. 4). Researchers agree that schools
need to renew their commitment to the preparation of citizens who are active
participants in society’s decision-making process. In a report by the National
Association of Secretaries of State, young Americans have a good understanding
of their rights as citizens yet only a vague understanding of their
responsibilities as citizens (The Center for Civic Education 2004, p. 3). This
vague understanding of responsibilities is not a condition only found in the
United States. Torney-Purta et al. found this to be true in a study of
citizenship in twenty-eight countries (2001, p. 78).
In a National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Civics Assessment study, Galston
concludes that performance by students in the areas of rules of political
interaction, political leaders (elected and non-elected), domestic policy,
foreign policy, and political geography is quite low (2003, p. 8). A
University of California-Los Angeles longitudinal study that lasted from the
mid-1960s to 2000, and involving over 250,000 students, noted every indicator
of political engagement has fallen by half (Galston 2003, p. 5). Further
analysis of available data finds that the decline in political participation
has been greatest among those with less education, less money, and fewer
connections with society, in general raising the possibility that these groups
will recreate these inequalities in the next generation (Soule 2001, p. 18).
Soule further notes that the decline in political participation has fostered
greater societal inequalities, which will eventually result in the undermining
of democracy (2001, p. 53). Researchers propose a number of ways to stem this
trend of declining political participation. It is proposed that a wider-range
of opportunities needs to be established for students to participate in:
-
genuine service-learning opportunities at all grade levels (Hunter and
Brisbin, Jr. 2000);
-
class discussions and investigations of issues where views are openly
discussed (Torney-Purta et. al. 2001, p. 137); and
-
school or community volunteer activities (CIRCLE 2003, p. 15).
What does this look like in classrooms?
"The Civic Mission of
Schools" reported that between 1988 and 1998 the proportion of fourth- grade
students who reported taking social studies daily fell from 49% to 39% (CIRCLE
2003, p. 15). The result of a decline of school minutes dedicated to the
social studies means that students are less likely to discuss current issues
in class, which often results in a decline of civic knowledge and skills. To
address this, Hilke suggests using literature. For young children, she
suggests holding mock-trials based on children’s stories, using breaking and
entering or destruction of property as the crime (1999, p. 52). Schools are
where young people learn to interact, debate, and work together, an important
foundation for future citizenship. For young children the opportunity to read
about current issues at home is declining as well. The NAEP Civics Assessment
reported a substantial drop in the percentage of students who said that their
families received a newspaper (CIRCLE 2003, p. 13). Yet, today’s American
youth identify newspapers as the source of information they trust most,
opposite of youth in other nations (Torney-Purta et. al. 2001, p. 98). The
decline in newspaper availability in students’ homes results in radio and
television as students’ increased source of information. These two media forms
have been identified by students as having a lower trust rate. Teachers could
address this by providing students with various print articles of the same
issue and having students identify differences and select which story they
"trust," defending their positions.
Service-learning is
growing in popularity and research supports its use in schools if certain
criteria are embedded in the program. Service-learning is not the same as
volunteering. Volunteering is generally not tied to classroom studies and may
be a part of a classroom assignment but does not carry with it the depth of
student action or reflection. Students have been shown to support and benefit
from service-learning projects that truly contribute to the community, are
student identified, develop collegial relationships, and reflect work and
learning skills (Safrit and Auck 2003). Willard believes that the middle
school years provide an opportunity for students to handle tasks they will
face as adults (2003, p. 37). She adds one caveat to instituting
service-learning: spend processing time every week if meaning is to be gained
from the students’ actions (Willard 2003, p. 38). The more time that is spent
tying classroom instruction to service-learning, the greater meaning is gained
from student’s actions. Power Achievement, a Kindergarten through grade 12
project assisting schools and communities in student-learning project
identification, identifies a wide-range of activities students of all ages can
use during their project: writing letters, giving speeches, telephoning
individuals and doing research (Boyte 2003, p. 94).
Young people are
volunteering as an alternative to official politics. Volunteering carries with
it little political action or study of an issue. A limited knowledge of
government is needed for volunteering; thus students will be hindered in
making changes for those they seek to assist (Galston 2003, p. 5; CIRCLE 2003,
p. 8). Torney-Purta et. al. argue that volunteering and belonging to
organizations other than political parties are developmentally appropriate for
youth as it allows them to work with their peers (2001, p. 89). If young
people are to be prepared to function in a democratic society, they need to be
actively engaged in democratic dialogues and efforts that span and honor a
diverse range of experiences, perspectives, and priorities (Westheimer and
Kahne 2003, p. 14). Owens and Nowell find that such social inquiry is
indispensable even for elementary-age students (2001, p. 34). If students see
that their actions do make a difference at school, school efficacy may lead to
a broader sense of political efficacy (Torney-Purta et. al. 2001, p. 130).
In a study conducted by the International Association for the Evaluation of
Educational Achievement, the United States continues to rank high, along with
Norway and Greece, in promoting an open climate for discussion (Torney-Purta
et. al. 2001, p. 38). Research identifies that an open climate for discussion
is a predictor of civic knowledge, support for democratic values,
participation in political discussion and political engagement (Hess and
Posselt 2002, p. 288). Yet in the same report, observational data suggests few
students seriously study controversial issues and group discussions appear not
to be a prominent instructional mode. Of the 135 high school classes that Hess
and Posselt analyzed, few students seriously studied controversial issues or
carried on critical group discussion. Many students simply identified and
offered opinions on the issue, but provided little evidence or theories
regarding causes and solutions to the problems. In the classroom, "I can say
what I want" is used as a definition of freedom of speech; yet students are
unable to tie responsibilities, court decisions, or historic events to this
Constitutional right (Avery 2003).
Citizen participation is broader
than just voting in an election. It is the day-to-day actions taken by
individuals that support the democratic principles of American society. No
matter what level of participation takes place, a strong democracy depends
upon the participation of the broad range of its citizens. Recognizing oneself
as a part of society and its history and being able to make contributions to
it has been found to foster self-efficacy in students leading to greater
participation in society as adults (Alleman and Brophy 2003, p. 108).
|
|
